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مخطوطہ شناسی اصول و ضوابط

مخطوطہ معنی و مفہوم:
مخطوطہ عربی زبان کا لفظ ہے اس کے معنی ہاتھ سے لکھی ہوئی تحریری، قلمی نسخہ ، دستاویز یا غیر مطبوعہ قلمی کتاب کیہیں۔ اس میں نثری اور شعری دونوں طرح کا مواد شامل ہے۔مخطوطہ عربی زبان کا لفظ ہے اس کے معنی ہیں ہاتھ سے لکھی ہوئی تحریر اس کے لئے انگریزی میں Manuscript کی اصطلاح رائج ہے یہ لفظ لاطینی لفظ Manuscriptus سے بنا ہے.یہ دراصل دو الفاظ Manu اور Script کا مرکب ہے جس کے معنی با لترتیب ہاتھ اور لکھا ہوا کے ہیں۔ تاریخی طور پر یہ لفظ طباعت printing کی ایجاد کے بعد قلمی کتابوں کے لئے استعمال کیا جانے لگا۔ لاطینی ادب میں اس کا وجود پندرہویں صدی عیسوی میں ملتا ہے۔ڈاکٹر انجم رحمانی کے نزدیک :
" ابتدائے اسلام میں مخطوطہ کے لیے مسودہ کی اصطلاح بھی منظر عام پر آئی جس کا مادہ اسود یعنی سیاہ ہے۔چونکہ یہ کتابیں سیاہ روشنائی سے لکھی جاتی تھیں،اس لیے یہ مسودہ کہلائیں اور اس کے لکھنے والے کو مسود کہا گیا۔عالم اسلام میں قلمی کتابوں کے لئے مخطوطہ کی اصطلاح بالکل جدید ہے مخطوطہ کے لکھنے والے کو خطاط اور اس کی تحریر کو خطاطی کہتے ہیں۔ مخطوطہ کی اصطلاح اس وقت دنیا عرب ،افریقیائی ممالک،ترکی اور جنوبی ایشیامیں مروّج ہے۔ ایران افغانستان اور وسطی ایشیائی ممالک میں اس کے بجائے نسخہ خطی کی اصطلاح رائج ہے۔ ایران میں اس سے پہلے دست نویس کی اصطلاح رائج تھی۔ جنوبی ایشیا میں اس کے لئے خطی یا قلمی کتاب،قلمی نسخہ وغیرہ خصوصی الفاظ میں بھی مستعمل رہے ہیں۔"
ڈاکٹر گیان چند جین مخطوطہ کی تعریف یوں کرتے ہیں:
"ہاتھ سے لکھی ہوئی تحریر مخطوطہ کہلاتی ہے۔"
امجد علی شاکر تحقیق و تدوین میں لکھتے ہیں:
"مخطوطہ سے مراد کاغذ یا کسی بھی دوسری مادی شے پر لکھی ہوئی تحریر...

Booster Dose of COVID 19 and Ethical Issues

COVID 19 is a recent and global pandemic. Preventive medicine is not very popular in Pakistan. With the limited resources, an average Pakistani would spend on a medical treatment rather than on a preventive drug. In Pakistan, booster shots are recently made available only to those who can pay for the cost of the vaccine. A Utilitarian approach has been adopted at various levels since the pandemic emerged by health care organizations and the government. The purpose was to maximize the benefits and minimize the risk of harm. It is the need of the hour to think about health equity and justice in a pluralistic way and refrain from initiating booster shots for elite of a resource-poor country. This pandemic will never end if a maximum number of people are not vaccinated in each country. This is only possible if there is an equitable distribution of vaccines.

Effect of Inhibitors on the Corrosion of Copper and its Alloys by Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Cyclic Voltammetry

In this work the corrosion process occurring on the surface of copper and four types of brasses i.e. CuZnAl, CuZnSn, CuZnPb and CuZnMn was investigated using elec- trochemical techniques. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), Cyclic Volt- ammetry (CV) and Potentiodynamic methods were the three techniques used. As the corrosion process is pH dependant, the investigations were carried out at three pH - slightly acidic (6.4), slightly alkaline (8.4) and strongly alkaline (10.4) in borate buffer. It was observed that the variation in pH altered the mechanism and also the rate of corrosion. In case of the four types of brasses it was observed that dopant in the brasses affected the corrosion rate i.e. CuZnMn had the highest corrosion rate (CR) of 0.019mm/yr and CuZnAl had the least CR of 0.009mm/yr in strongly alkaline medium. However the corrosion rate of all the brasses was found to be smaller than that of pure Cu (0.132 mm/yr). The same trend was observed for slightly alkaline and acidic pH. The corrosion phenomenon was also studied in the presence of azoles which inhibited the process of corrosion. The five azoles were benzotriazole (BTA), mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), benzimidazole (BIMD), mercaptobenzimidazole (MBIMD) and thiadiazole (TDA As the inhibitory action of the five azoles was attributed to their adsorption on the sur- face of Cu and brasses, the adsorption isotherms were plotted and thermodynamic pa- rameters for the adsorption process were calculated. High negative value of DG indi- cated highly spontaneous process of chemisorption. Inhibitor efficiencies for the five azoles were also calculated from CV, EIS, and PD methods and it was observed that MBT and TDA were better inhibitors due to the presence of S atom. The relative in- hibitor efficiency (I.E) was found to be in the order MBT > TDA > MBIMD >BIMD > BTA. The effect of pH and concentration of azole on its corrosion inhibitory action was also investigated. It was observed that azoles had the highest I.E values at pH = 8.4. Impedance spectra were characterized in terms of the charge transfer resistance and transport of copper ions through the oxide layer. The results indicate that the surface layer is of dielectric nature, and its protection increases with increasing inhibitor con- centration with a maximum value at pH 8.4. The corrosion process was also studied in the presence of halide ions (F-, Cl-, Br- and I-) which are known to decrease corrosion resistance at the three pH. The I- ion was found to be the most aggressive halide ion with different mechanism of corrosion. The relative order of aggressiveness of the halide ion was I-> Br- >Cl- > F-. This order was confirmed from the experimental results obtained from the three methods i.e. CV, EIS and potentiodynamic measurements. DFT calculation with 6-31 G* basis set were carried out on the five azoles and the theoretical parameters were correlated with inhibitor efficiencies. Keywords: copper, brass, adsorption isotherms, borate buffer, azole corrosion inhibi- tors, halide ions, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry.
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