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تنقید کی اقسام

تنقید کی بہت زیادہ اقسام ہیں اور یہ اقسام با ہم بہت قریب ہیں۔اسی وجہ سے انسان اکثر مغالطے کا شکار ہو جاتا ہے اور ان کو باہم گڈ مڈ کردیتاہے۔تنقید کی درج ذیل اقسام زیادہ اہم ہیں۔
• مارکسی تنقید • استقرائی تنقید
• تجزیاتی تنقید • رومانی تنقید
• سائنسی تنقید • عمرانی تنقید
• نظریاتی تنقید • ہیئتی تنقید
• جمالیاتی تنقید • نفسیاتی تنقید
1۔مارکسی تنقید:
جب کارل مارکس کے اشتراکی نظریات عام ہوئے تو ادبی دنیا میں بھی ان نظریات کی صدائے بازگشت سنائی دینے لگی۔اس طرح تنقید کا ایک نظریہ اور دبستان وجود میں آگیا۔یہ دراصل کارل مارکس اور اس کے مقلدین کے اشتراکی افکار تھے۔اسے اشتراکی تنقید یا مارکسی تنقید کہا جاتا ہے۔مارکسی نقاد 'ادب برائے زندگی' کے قائل ہیں۔مارکسی تنقید کے حوالے سے پروفیسر احتشام حسین کہتے ہیں:
"ادب کی یہ حیثیت کہ اس میں سماجی حقائق اپنی طبقاتی شکل میں ظاہر ہوتے ہیں اور ادیب کے سماجی رجحان کا پتہ اس کے خیالات سے چلتا ہے۔ادیب زندگی کی کشمکش میں شریک ہو کراسے بہتر بنانے کی راہ بتا سکتا ہے۔اشتراکی حقیقت نگاری اور مارکسی تنقید میں سب سے نمایاں شکل میں یہی نظر آتا ہے۔جو نقاد اس نظریہ تنقید کو اپناتے ہیں وہ روح عصر ، سماجی نفسیات،عمرانیات یعنی ان تمام باتوں پر نگاہ رکھتے ہیں جو طبقاتی سماج میں پیداوار کیمعاشی بنیادوں کے اوپر فکری اور فلسفیانہ حیثیت سے وجود میں آتی ہیں۔"
پروفیسر احتشام حسین کی رائے سے ہم اس نتیجے پر پہنچتے ہیں کہ مارکسی یا اشتراکی تنقید میں ادیب یہ دیکھتا ہے کہ سماجی رجحان کس طرف تھا، اس کے خیالات کیسے تھے، وہ کیسے ماحول میں رہتا تھا،زندگی کے کون سے مسائل سے گزر رہا تھا۔یہ ساری باتیں سامنے رکھتے ہیں۔پاکستان میں مارکسی تنقید کے حوالے سے نمایاں نقاد جنہوں نے شہرت حاصل...

An Evaluation of the 2020 Change to the Saudi Emergency Residency Program Assessment

Background Several changes have been made to the assessment component of Saudi residency training programs. Among those is the implementation of three examinations over the course of the year. Aim We aimed to explore the emergency residents’ perspective on the change in the number of examinations, and the impact of such changes in terms of time management, knowledge gain, and social life. Methods This cross-sectional study was carried out from September to October 2022, using an electronic survey targeting emergency board trainees. Results One hundred and nine emergency residents enrolled, of whom 64.2% were male. The majority, 45%, were from the central province. Junior-level residents (R1) represented 26.6% of the sample, while R2 (second year) comprised 18.3%, R3 (third year) comprised 38.5%, and 16.5% were senior (R4) level. More than half of the participants, 56 % (n=61), did not support the change from one to three examinations and believed that it had a negative influence on knowledge gain and clinical skills. The influence of the change on time management stands out as a negative impact, in addition to its impact on social life and annual leave arrangements. Conclusions The support for three examinations throughout the year was low; a contributing factor to this may be the sudden changes effected by those tests on training and time management. A re-evaluation of testing culture and involving residents in decision-making might generate acceptance.

Empirical Investigation of Pricing Performance of Initial Public Offerings Ipos : Evidence from Pakistan

Over the last four decades, the performance of initial public offerings (IPOs) has remained an interesting topic for the academia, researchers and policy makers. Questions pertaining to how the prices of new issues behave in short-, intermediate- and long-term have been shown to have economic and academic implications. Empirical evidence suggests that IPOs significantly outperform most benchmarks from the listing day to one-month trading periods. The conclusions reached in studies of longer-term IPO performance have been controversial because researchers generally disagree on the methodologies used to identify longer-term abnormal performance. The problems investigated in this study are whether: (a) IPOs generate abnormal returns on initial trading day and subsequently in short- and intermediate-term and (b) IPOs systematically produce abnormal price performance. The purpose of this study is to assess whether IPOs produce abnormal returns over a period of six-months and to identify abnormal IPO performance over three-year period lasting from issuance to the three years anniversary of the newly issued shares. The research has accomplished this by developing matched-firm benchmark, based on market capitalization, to gauge abnormal performance using event- and calendar-time strategies. In addition, this study has investigated the determinants of short-, intermediate- and long-term performance using Extreme Bounds Analysis, which analyzes the sensitivity and robustness of explanatory variables and identifies true predictors. Moreover, this study has examined the growth rate implicit in offer prices using a reverse engineering DCF model. Based upon the implicit growth rate, the research will determine the estimated degree of overvaluation of IPOs by underwriters. The findings of this study are that: (a) IPOs outperformed in short-term, which indicates that investors can earn significant abnormal returns up to 15-trading day from listing day, (b) IPOs outperformed in intermediate-term, which illustrates significance of abnormal returns over two months of trading, (c) IPOs underperformed over three-year period, and (d) the growth rate embedded in IPO prices illustrating that on average the cash flow of IPO firm is expected to grow by one-fourth annually over five-year. The robust factors influencing short-term and intermediate performance include: oversubscription, aftermarket risk level of the IPO, offer price, rate of return on assets and percentage of shares offered. In terms of longer-term IPO underperformance, the observed pattern is not always statistically significant. Equal-weighted buy-and-hold abnormal returns and cumulative abnormal returns are used to find true predictors of three-year underperformance. The results suggest that underpricing, financial leverage, hot activity period, issue proceeds, oversubscription, age of the firm, aftermarket risk level of the IPO, post issue promoters‟ holding and affiliations with textiles, technology & communications and other industries caused long-term underperformance. This study concluded that short-term implied growth rate, market momentum, firm‟s age and size of sales significantly affect longer-term IPO performance. These findings provide opposition to the theory of market efficiency and infer that there is an unfair distribution in the premarket IPO pricing and allocation process. A review of the pre-market pricing as well as the method of allocation may bring significant positive change; revisions to the process could avert unfair benefits obtained by investors with privileged premarket IPO allocations, which would provide identical opportunities for investors participate in the price discovery process.
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