Introduction:

The British India and Afghanistan, being close neighbours, had cultural ties due to geographical proximity and cross border movement of people. It was observed that whenever the British atrocities against Indian Muslim increased in India, it led to search for refuge in nearby outreaches or in Afghanistan. Later, the same outreaches used to utilize for activities against the British government. Thus, Afghan territory was one such place from where anti-British activities could be resumed. Turkey was another such country where refuge could be taken and travel made by Indian Muslims either individually or in groups.

The Muslims of the sub-continent took pride in the growth of a Muslim State of Afghanistan on the North Western fringes of the sub-continent by Ahmad Shah Abdali. Ahmad Shah Abdali, commonly named as Ahmad Shah Baba, was born in Multan.^[1] He was the second son of Zaman Khan Abdali who belonged to the Sadozai clan of Abdali tribe. Ahmad Shah Abdali was the incharge of personal guard of Persian king Nadir Shah Afshar. Following murder of Nadir Shah Afshar in 1747, Ahmad Shah Abdali, hurriedly reaches Kandahar and through a tribal consensus elected himself as the leader of the new Afghan kingdom.^[2] Later, under his leadership he defeated Persians. The new Afghan kingdom geographically comprised some parts of India including Peshawar, Derajat, Kashmir and Punjab. Following death of Ahmad Shah on 23rd October, 1772, his successor princes entangled in internecine wars against each other till the first quarter of the 19th century. During these internal wars for succession Afghan kingdom lost territories in India to Sikhs, later occupied by British Indian Governemnt.^[3]

The Muslims residing in the north-western fringes of the sub-continent took pride in the growth of a Muslim state of Afghanistan established by Ahmad Shah Abdali. However, the idea of a Muslim state inside India, in the middle of eighteenth century, was confronted with many threats, both indigenous and foreign. Internally, Sikh, Jat and Marathas were potential source of troubles, while externally, the danger from Europeans, particularly the British and the French. During this period, the Mughal King, Shah Alam (1728-1806) and the Muslim religious leader in India, Shah Waliullah (1703-1762), approached Ahmad Shah Abdali for assistance. Ahmad Shah Abdali responded quickly, attacked Maratha at Panipat in 1761and defeated them.^[4] The second request was for strengthening position of Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) of Mysore but by that time, Ahmad Shah Abadali was dead and his grandson, Zaman Shah (1770-1844), couldn’t honor the request. ^[5]Tipu Sultan of Mysore lost all hope from the Mughal state, and wrote a letter to the Ottoman Caliph fto ask for help. Instead of help, the caliph handed over the same letter to the British government.^[6] In the process thereon, the East India Company acquiring political power in the subcontinent, gradually seized most of the states. Leaders like Tipu Sultan, wanted to retain their independence in case of threat. Despite failure of governments, continuous individual efforts have been reflected by Indian Muslims against the British imperial power, in one way or the other. Several British-Indian figures are reputed for their individual endeavors in this regard. Abdur Rehman Peshawari, Zafar Hassan Aibak, and Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi were some of these renowned figures. Specifically, Abdur Rehman Peshawari contributed his services, as a journalist, medic, fighter, and diplomate to the Turkish people.

1. Abdur Rahman Peshawari (1886-1925), (son of Haji Ghulam Samdani, a well-known businessman, contractor by profession,) was born in Peshawar. He, a student of the prestigious Aligarh Muslim University, left his studies to join the team of twenty four doctors and male nurses, led by Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari (1880-1937)^[7] to Turkey to serve their Muslim brothers. The team was supposed to look after the ailing Ottoman Caliph. Abdur Rehman volunteered to serve as a stretcher bearer/Nurse in the team.^[8]

Before departure to Turkey as he was unsure of his father’s permission, so he sold all his belongings for the journey. The mission reached Turkey in 1912 and established three medical camps there. After performing its duty the mission came back to India while Abdur Rehman prolonged his stay. He also actively performed his duty during the Balkan Wars (1912-13) in Turkey. After the end of Balkan Wars, he kept on staying in Turkey and played further active role in post war period. He was enlisted in Army as lieutenant, trained in Istanbul and posted at Beirut, until the break of First World War. He served with honor in a number of campaigns throughout the war. After the defeat of Germany and Turkey at the end of World War I, the Allied Powers occupied Istanbul. ^[9]

Mustafa Kamal Pasha (1881-1938) established a provisional government in Angora (Ankara) to fight Allies and the sitting Caliphate. Abdur Rehman joined this force in order to revive and restore sovereignty of Turkish nation. Peshawari has also worked as a journalist in Anadolu Agency^[10], the Turkey’s first news service.

Abdur Rehman Peshawari was very fluent in Pashtu, Dari, Urdu, English and Turkish. In return for his services to Turkish nation, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk^[11] appointed him as the first Turkish Ambassador to Afghanistan in 1921. Serving for two years in Afghanistan, he was replaced by Fakhri Pasha (1868-1948)^[12] in 1923. Abdur Rehman Peshawari adopted Turkish nationality but always presented himself as Afghan, Once while in Turkey, visited Kabul in private capacity and even spent three months at Peshawar with his family. This was the time before his joining an important assignment in the Establishment Division in Istanbul. ^[13]Though he remained almost unknown in his hometown, Paksitan, but, today, is known to many prople in Turkey. He devoted his life to the Turkish public as a medic, fighter, journalist and diplomate.

Amanullah since signing of 1919 treaty^[14] was well disposed towards Britain. In October 1922, he asked majority of the Indian Nationalists and revolutionaries including Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi(1872-1944) to leave Afghanistan. Thus, it was impossible for MaulanaUbaidullah Sindhi, to live more in Afghanistan;^[15] in the mean time he got an opportunity to meet with a Turkish Ambassador namely Abdur Rahman Peshawari. From that time onward Ubaidullah Sindhi and his comrades were remained in close contact with Abdur Rahman Peshawari.^[16]

His career in the newly created Turkish nation ended prematurely as he was assassinated in 1925. His death was a bad luck as he was mistakenly killed for another person, the Rauf Orbay(1881-1964)^[17] , a prominent Turkish politician (the prime minister of Turkey in 1922-23). Hence , actual target missed due to Abdur Rehman close resemblance to Rauf Orbay. He was buried in the Macka graveyard (Istanbul) where Syed Jamnal-ud-Din Afghani was also buried before final burial in Kabul. ^[18]He has not been forgotton in Turkey, Tayyab Erdogon, the most powerful and popular Turkish politician in the last decade or so remembered him while addressing Pakistani members of parliament on November 17, 2016.

1. Zaffar Hassan^[19] (1895) born to Hafiz Azim-ud-Din, a well- respected person belong to Karnal, located in Panipat. His father belonged to a middle class landowning family went to Deoband for education. Following his studies, he left farming and was appointed as Qanungo. His son, Zafar Hassan, following his completion of Arabic knowledge was sent to modern school where he was awarded a scholarship for resuming his college studies. He got admission in Government College, Lahore. Zafer Hassan, while in college, Balkan Wars started in Asia Minor^[20]. Indian Muslim students were supporting Turkey in these wars. These young educated people were contributing articles to the weekly Comrade^[21] authored by Muhammad Ali and to Al-Hilal and Al-Balaghof Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad^[22]. As time passed the company of his friends dispersed, joined different professions. Khushi Mohammad, ShujaUllah and Abdul Majid joined Medical College while Zafar Hassan opted for mathematics. ^[23]

In 1914 World War I broke out between Central Powers and Allied powers. Turkey joined the War on behalf of Germany. Indian Muslim students who were active in support to Turkey in War were approached by a group of Mujahideen living in Asmar, Buner. There was a small network and representatives of Mujahidin in Punjab, such as, Maulvi FazlIlahi in Wazirabad^[24] and MaulviAbdur Rahim alias Maulvi Bashir in Lahore. These Maulvis prepared fourteen students to migrate to Turkey, including Zafer Hasan and his friends.^[25]

Later the group was joined by other members such as, Shah Nawaz, a brother of Allah Nawaz^[26]and their domestic servant Abdul Haq. Abdullah and Khushi Mohammad coordinating Mujahideen representatives were ready to bear all the expenses of their intended journey. They started on Friday, 5th February 1915 for Haripur.^[27]They adopted factious names and Abdul Majid Khan was selected as the group leader. In Haripur they were joined by their guide whose duty it was to take them safely to the Mujahideen headquarters and finally to Kabul.

Zafar Hassan was at Kabul when the Turco-German Mission arrived at Kabul via Iran in1915, under the Chairmanship of Raja MahendraPratap^[28]. The main purpose of the Mission was to agree Amir Habib Ullah, to declare war against the British India. Zafar Hassan informs that the mission was to provoke Afghans to attack India. Thus, as planned, if the British Indian government was entangled in the war with the Afghanistan, then the Britsh government was in difficult position to send troops to the war in Europe. This would have turned out that the German and Turkish forces could have potential offences against Russian forces, Moreover; in case of Indian attacks or revolt against British government could also lead towards liberation of India.^[29]

During the third Anglo-Afghan War (1919), Zafar Hasan fought alongwith Nadir Khan Commander-in-Chief of Afghan Army on southern front. He was considered the most trusted comrade by Nadir Khan and also acted as the private secretary of Nadir Khan. He was posted at the general Staff Office where his job was to translate news from English and Urdu into Persian. He was made the editor of IttehadMashriqi. During his job, the most notable work he did was the preparation of Who is who about the tribes of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In addition he translated an English book in Persian named From Black Mountains to Waziristan by H.C. Willy.^[30]

Later Zafer Hassan left for Russia. As narrated in the autobiography of Zaffar Hassan,^[31] their meeting with Chechrin, the Russian Foreign Minister. Zaffar Hassan arranged the meeting through Riesner. Reinser managed it through Sukerman, the head of the Central Asian Bureau in the Foreign Office. They met in the first week of June, 1923. MaulanaUbaidullah Sindhi discussed things of mutual cooperation in detail. He insisted on full support of Russian government against the British imperialism, to which Chechrin agreed. Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi demanded one crore rupees for Afghanistan, in return Afghanistan would give passage to the revolutionaries from Russia against the British.

In 1923, Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi proceeded to Turkey from Russia, and stayed for a period of three years. There he observed carefully the Ataturk’s (1881-1938). He met many political leaders including Ismat Pasha, the Prime Minister of Turkey. The impacts of Sindhi’s political ideology was great on him. He founded Mahabharat Sarvrajia Party in 1924, himself became its president, and his close associate, Zafar Hasan Aibak, was made its Secretary General.^[32]

Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi was deputed to Turkey in order to establish contact with Indian leaders from there. Noor Muhammad left Moscow for Paris where he met Nadir Khan and through Nadir Khan’s efforts reached India. Khushi Muhammad was sent to Germany and France. Abdul Hamid was sent to India but was caught by the Afghan Government and sent back to Moscow. Again he tried to enter into Hindustan but was caught at Karachi by the British. Zaffar Hassan spent two years in Moscow and then he too left it for Turkey.^[33]

Before leaving for Russia Ubidullah Sindhi spent much of his time in Afghanistan to promote the cause of freedom from English imperialism. Before reaching Kabul in 1915, Sindhi met Hakeem Ajmal Khan, Dr. Mukhtar Ansari, MualanaMuhammad Ali Johar and Abul Kalam Azad, at Delhi, informing them to leave for Kabul on the advice of Mehmudul Hasan.^[34]Maulana Sahib met important Afghan dignitaries including Mohammad Nadir Khan, the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, Sardar Mahmud Tarzi, an intellectual and editor-general of the bi-weekly journal, Siraj-UL-Akhbar, Ubidullah Sindhi also met Amir Habibullah of Afghanistan and tried to convince him to join the anti-British alliance. By the end of the day, all cajoling and efforts both of the Mission and Maulana Sahib failed to win over Amir support their argument. Instead, Amir Habibullah proclaimed the policy of neutrality of the Afghan state in the Great War. The Amir instead asked the members of the Mission to put an army of at least one lakh on Afghan border if they wanted Amir’s participation on their side in the War^[35]. Other than that, he also demanded a large amount of money that could not be managed by the mission hence, the Turco-German Mission failed.^[36] Some members of the Mission stayed in Kabul while majority of them left for their respective countries. ^[37]

Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi had organized Indian youths in Kabul into an organization named JanoodUllah (the Army of God), on the analogy of Christian Salvation Army. Mahmud-UL-Hassan was chosen as the Commander-in-Chief of this volunteer corps. Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi coordinated the work of Janoodullah from Afghanistan. He wrote the detail plan of the organization on a silken cloth to dispatch it to Mahmud-Ul-Hassan, who was staying at Hejaz, at that time. Hence, Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi handed the same silken cloth letter one Abdul Haq, the servant of Allah Nawaz Khan.^[38] In the year 1916, Abdul Haq left Kabul for Multan. In Multan, he met K.B. Rab Nawaz Khan, father of Allah Nawaz Khan and shared the secret information with him. K.B. Rab Nawaz khan who was British government man handed the secret letter to British government. Following this disclosure all activities of Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi and his associates were no longer secret at least to the British Indian Government. In return for his loyalty to British Crown, K, B. Rab Nawaz Khan was rewarded with fief and Abdul Haq got job in police department. In reaction the British Indian Government arrested Sheikh-ul-Hind and was sent to Malta. The sympathizers of the Provisional Government in Kabul were harassed by the Afghan authorities.

Students of Islamia College supported the just cause of King AmanUllah Khan. Some of them (including Akbar Shah) decided to leave for Kabul in order to liberate their motherland from clutches of white people with the help of the Afghan forces. Akbar Shah, eagerly waiting for one of his companions, lost interest in studies and was thinking all the time about his onward journey. The occasion came. One Sarfaraz Khan contacted him in the Chelmosford Hostel of the College. They discussed the matter for a while and left for Hashtnagar by Tonga. On the way Sarfaraz Khan gave him the details of their other Comrades – Gohar Rahman, Sultan Mohammad Khan. After spending six days in Haji Saib’s company they started for Chamarqand. Finding himself unable to accompany his friends Sarfaraz Khan returned from Chamarqand. They left the colony for Jalalabad. In Jalalabad they met Nadir Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Afghan forces. During discussion Nadir Khan showed keen interest in India’s North West Frontier Province. The students intended to stay in Jalalabad, but were told that by royal orders every Indian, who had left the country, must proceed to Kabul. Nadir Khan briefs the Foreign Office on Phone about their intentions but was reminded.^[39]

Haji Miraj-ud-Din advised them to leave Afghanistan for Turkey. Turkey at that time was surrounded by the Greeks and other European powers and was not in a position to defend itself fully. To help brethren in Turkey at that difficult time was their Islamic duty. Other comrades favoured the idea and some eighty two members were ready for onward journey. They applied for visa, but king Amanullah asked them to stay but they were unwilling. Finally, they got the permission. It was decided that six of them should be sent earlier than the other ones in order to overcome exit formalities. Akbar Shah narrates minute details of this arduous journey.^[40]

In 1921 Akbar Shah along with Maqsood Ali of Shahjahanpur represented the Indian youth in the Baku Conference. In Baku he met his old comrades. They were in a very desperate condition and were not allowed to enter Turkey by the Turkish authorities. In those days a Hindustani Mustafa Saghir had made an abortive murder attempt on Mustafa Kamal Ataturk. Mustafa Saghir was executed; but on the whole the Turkish nation’s hearts remained full of hatred against the Indians whom they considered as British agents. The same Haji Miraj-ud-Din, the spokesman of the extremists was crying to go back to Hindustan. They had submitted an application to the President of Azerbaijan requesting permission as well as help and support in going back to their motherland. Akbar Shah without any difficulty got permission to meet the President. The President was an old Muslim Turkish woman. He met her and informed her about the miserable condition of the Indian Muhajirin. She promised her help and support. ^[41]

Conclusion:

The Muslim personalities of British India such as, Abdur Rehman Peshawari, Zafar Hasan, and Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi, have contributed to the cause of pa-Islamism, and Muslim Brotherhood. They were revolutionary, and nationalists, but, instead of following violent means, they found diplomacy as the way out. They left their native homelands and families in highlighting the slogan of religion, emancipating Muslim societies from the clutches of colonialism. They played a key political role in liberating the Muslim societies like Afghanistan, and Turkey from the bondage of colonialism/imperialism. Their way of dealing with the cause, was in form of modern political diplomatic negotiations. They worked in the capacity of ambassadorship. Among them, Abdur Rehman Peshawari may be called as the unsung hero of Peshawar. However, recently, the Turkish President, Taib Urdagaan, during his speech to the joint parliament of Pakistan, acceded to the services of Peshawari to the Turkey.

References