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تنقید کیا ہے۔

تنقید:
تنقید عربی زبان کا لفظ ہے۔ جس کے عام معنی اخراج کے ہیں۔نورالغات میں مولوی نورالحسن نے اس کی تعریف یوں کی ہے:
"کھوٹا کھرا پرکھنا یا جانچ کرنا۔ایسی جانچ جو ضعیف اور مشکوک چیزوں کو الگ کردے یعنی اچھے اور برے کی تمیز کرنا"
اردو ادب میں اس کے مترادف لفظ تنقید استعمال ہوتا ہے لیکن انگریزی میں اس کے مترادف لفظ Criticism استعمال ہوتا ہے۔بعض اوقات اس کے لیے نقد یا انتقاد کے الفاظ بھی استعمال کیے جاتے ہیں۔حامداللہ افسرنے اسی تناظر میں اپنی کتاب "تنقیدی اصول و نظریے" پہلے نقد الادب کے نام سے شائع کی۔ان کی ایک کتاب" انتقاد" اور دوسری "اصول انتقاد ادبیات" کے نام سے شائع ہوئی لیکن ہمارے معاشرے میں اکثریت کے ساتھ چلنا پڑتا ہے۔لہذا حامداللہ افسر اس نتیجے پر پہنچے کہ چونکہ اکثریت اس طرف جا رہی ہے تو میں چونکہ اس کو نام نقد یا انتقاد دینا چاہ رہا ہوں تو شاید کامیاب نہ ہو سکوں تو انہوں نے اپنی کتاب کا نام تبدیل کیا اور اسی کتاب کو پھر شائع کیا اور اس کا نام رکھا" تنقیدی اصول و نظریے"۔
حامد اللہ افسر کی اس کے بارے میں رائے یہ ہے کہ وہ کیوں اس طرف آئے۔وہ کہتے ہیں :
"لفظ تنقید عربی صرف و نحو کے اعتبار سے صحیح نہیں ہے جس کی جگہ نقد یا انتقاد ہونا چاہیئے۔لیکن اردو ادب میں اب یہ لفظ رائج ہو گیا ہے۔اس کی جگہ کسی دوسریلفظ کا استعمال مناسب نہ ہوگا۔جہاں تک اردو زبان کا سوال ہے اسے صحیح سمجھنا چاہیئے۔"
ادبی اصطلاحات کا تعارف" کے صفحہ 167 پر مصنف ابوالاعجاز صدیقی کی رائے یہ ہے :
"تنقید اصل میں کسی بھی فن پارے کو ذاتی پسندو ناپسند سے بالا ہو کر پرکھنے اور جانچنیکا نام ہے۔تنقید کسی ادب کے فنی محاسن کی پرکھ کا نام ہے"

Cryptocurrency Business Covers the Psychological Impact of the Business Market on the Youth Segment

In comparison to the production of physical currency, e-money is a commodity that is provided by banks or financial-sector firms, such as paypal. Then the transaction and investment processes shifted with technical advancements. Today, cryptocurrencies seem to render commerce and transaction structures simpler. The invention of electronic money would help young people expand, given the universal usage of transaction resources to promote goods owned by business owners in all international countries. The blockchain mechanism will operate separately, apart from the transaction speed, without any agency regulating or manipulating all continuing transactions.

Epidemiology of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Small Ruminants of Punjab

Among viral diseases , Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is one of the main transboundary small ruminant diseases. PPR is an acute disease, highly contagious with clinical signs of high grade fever, occulonasal dischargea, necrotizing and erosive stomatitis, intestinal mucosal damage and pneumonia, with morbidity and mortality rate 100 and 90% respectively. Present study was designed to conduct seroepidemiological study of PPR virus in sheep and goat in the Punjab province. A total of 800 serum samples were collected from selected areas from sheep (n=400) and goat (n=400) from population of the selected areas. In the five districts including Faisalabad, Attock, Dera Ghazi Khan, Bhakkar, Kasur were sampled and the samples were divided proportionately based on population size of the respective districts. Results showed that disease frequency was higher during winter days and maximum seroprevalence was detected in December, followed by May and September the trend was observed to decline in the month of July. Different risk factors affecting prevalence of PPR were investigated by the help of Participatory epidemiological investigations. Further, with the help of molecular epidemiology and by using PPRV specific F gene the molecular nature of the virus was analyzed. Moreover, the efficacy and protective ability of PPR vaccines under field conditions were evaluated in sheep and goats. The first part of the study focused upon investigating the epidemiological parameters and its association with the PPR disease in Pakistan. The second part of my study focused to detect the anti-PPRV antibodies in sheep and goat population in Pakistan. The serum samples were subjected to c-ELISA to detect antibodies directed against the nucleoprotein of the Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) virus The overall seroprevalence calculated on the basis of c-ELISA was found to be61 % in sheep and 44% in goats although no significant difference was found between these two species. In the third phase specimen samples (Lymph nodes, Spleen, Nasal swabs) were collected by attending different out breaks in the selected districts, these samples were evaluated by RT-PCR. Sequencing and phylogentic analysis of the samples were performed. Prevalence of PPR virus detected by RT-PCR was 62.8 and 63.9% in sheep and goat, respectively. In present study difference between sheep and goat prevalence is non-significant. In the F gene phylogenetic relationship the sequence in study clustered with sequence pattern from Pak 09 with accession no. (FN996973.1), Bhutan 10 (FR667649.1) and Bangladesh 2000 (FR667556.1), branching pattern. In the present study maximum predilection site of the virus was found in lymph node (100%) followed by spleen (100%) and nasal swab (62.85%) from sheep. The goats of eastern Punjab districts showed maximum detection (100%) followed by southern Punjab district (88.88%). In the final phase of the study, antibody titre of sheep and goats were evaluated by using technique of indirect haemagglutination (IHA). Two vaccines were used in the trial containing Nigerian 75/1 strain used for commercial purpose vaccination in the country. A non-significant difference was present between two vaccine responses in present trial and both vaccines were equally effective. In conclusion the PPR prevalence ratio is increasing in sheep and goat population of Punjab. The F gene of PPRV can be used for the detection of PPR disease and lymph node is the prime organ for virus detection in sheep and goat.
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Asian Research Index Whatsapp Chanel

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