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الفصل الأول: ما هو الأدب المقارن ؟

الفصل الأول: ما هو الأدب المقارن ؟

 تعددت وكثرت مدلولات الأدب المقارن، وتنوعت من باحث لآخر فالأدب المقارن من العلوم الأدبية الحديثة المبتكرة في العصر الحديث وأول من أطلق عليه هذه التسمية[1] فان تيجم[2] ففي المعنى المعجمي هو "المقارنة بين آداب أو أدباء لغوية واحدة أو مجموعات لغوية مختلفة من خلال دراسة التأثيرات الأدبية التى تتعدى الحدود اللغوية والجنسية والسياسية كالمدرسة الرومانتيكية[3] في آداب مختلفة"، فالمقارنة بين شوقي وشكسبير في العمل الأدبي المسرحي( كليو باترا) هو من قبيل الأدب المقارن، ولكن الموازنة بين شوقي وإسكندر فرح في ( كليوباترا) هو من الموازنات الأدبية وإن اتفقنا في الصفة الخارجية وهي الموزانة والمقارنة، إلا أنهما يختلفان في الوجوه[4] .

 ويوضح محمد رمضان الجريبي تعريف الأدب المقارن ويوضحه باختصار بأنه إذا أردنا أن نخرج بتعريف بسيط لهذا العلم نجد أن الأدب المقارن هو دراسة نصين أو أديبين أو عنصرين لمعرفة أوجه الاتفاق أو الإختلاف ، لبيان الأصيل منهما والفاضل من المفضول سواء كانت هذه الدراسة في الأدب القومي الواحد واللغة الواحدة أو كانت في لغتين مختلفتين.

وهناك اختلاف بين الموزانة والمقارنة.

  1. فالموازنة الأدبية تكون في حدود اللغة الواحدة والأدب القومي الواحد ، في حين أن الأدب المقارن يكون بالمقارنة بين أدبين أو لغتين مختلفتين .
  2. الموزانة الأدبية تقوم على دراسة جوهر الأدب وعناصره وأسرار الجمال فيه ، بينما الدراسة المقارنة تدرس وتتبع تاريخ الآداب وعلاقتها ببعضها
  3. وأخيراً الموزانة الأدبية تستهدف البحث عن أسباب الجمال وعناصر القوة والضعف في العمل الأدبي .

أما المقارنة الأدبية تهدف إلى البحث في الجذور التاريخية للآداب ، ومدى التأثر أو التأثير بين أدبين مختلفين في اللغة، وهذا يعني أن الموازنة بين أبي تمام والبحتري في الأدب العربي أو...

Maulana Muhammad Ali - A Strategic Point in Indo-Muslim Politics (Comment)

‘A great man’, says Justice Oliver Wendell, Jr, ‘represents a great ganglion in the nerves of society, or to vary the figure, a strategic point in the campaign of history, and part of his greatness consists in being there’. (italic ours). And Maulana Muhammad Ali was one such nerve-centre in Indo-Muslim society during the second and third decades of the twentieth century. Indeed, he was one such strategic point in the onward march of Indo-Muslim politics that eventually found culmination and crystallization in the emergence of Pakistan. Actually no one else represented the tone, tenor and temper of the romanticist, Khilafatist era (in the 1910s and 1920s) as he did in his hectic life, his revolutionary activities his numerous discomfitures, and in his tragic death. Whether he led a hectic life, whether he took recourse to a revolutionary path, or whether he goaded himself to die a tragic death outside the frontiers of his motherland cataclysmically, in whatever he did, he, consciously or unconsciously, carried forward the campaign of Indo-Muslim history: the redemption of Islam in India and abroad. In other words, he stood, above all, for an honourable existence for Muslims in India and in the rest of the troubled Muslim world in the existential crisis that convulsed Muslim India and that world.

Role of Adult Attachment, Conflict Resolution, Communication Competence and Social Support in Marital Satisfaction Among Couples

The present research was carried out to explore the adult attachment and its association on the marital satisfaction among couples in Pakistan. The main objective of the current study was to find out the relationship of adult attachment for marital satisfaction among couples and also to find out the relationship of husbands` attachment dimensions on the wives’ marital satisfaction and impact of wives’ attachment dimensions on the husband marital satisfaction. Present research further explored three factors i.e. conflict resolution, social support, and communication competence and their role as mediating variables between attachment and marital satisfaction. The research comprised three studies. Study I deals with translation and determination of psychometric properties of Experiences in Close Relationships- Revised questionnaire (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000); Enrich Couple Scales (Olson, 1996); and Social Provision Scale (Cutrona & Russell, 1987). Part I of study- I deals with ttranslation, adaptation, and cross language validation of the instrument. Part II deals with pretesting Instruments on a small sample and also determines the construct validity like Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Initially the researcher translated the scale into Urdu language and then carries out pre-testing on a small sample of 48 married individuals. The results of pretesting indicated that all the three instruments were showing satisfactory reliabilities indices. Afterwards the translated instruments were ready for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) on a sample of 300 married individuals. As results of CFA reduced final instruments were administered to a sample of 96 married couples (192 individuals) to verify the psychometric properties and testing the preliminary hypothesis in pilot study. Correlation coefficients were computed as indices to verify the magnitude and direction among various variables. Finally main study was conducted with N=350 (175 couples) on diverse groups on the basis of age, education, income, family system, length of relationship and number of children. There are three mediating variables, such as, conflict resolution, social support, and communication competence which are hypothesized to mediate the relationship between adult attachment and marital satisfaction. Consistent with hypothesis the research shows that three separate models were drawn to check the path analysis in AMOS software and these models are based upon Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) and it is found that conflict resolution is contributing as a mediating variable between attachment and marital satisfaction. For example anxious female is affecting her own conflict resolution as compared to avoidant female who aeffects the partners` marital satisfaction. Communication competence of both partners is fully mediating the relationship between avoidance and marital satisfaction. Similarly, social support is fully mediating the relationship between both partners` avoidance and their marital satisfaction. Finally, it was concluded that couples with anxious and avoidant attachment reported less marital satisfaction and there is a significant role of conflict resolution, communication competence and social support in strengthening the marital satisfaction. In the end, the findings are discussed in light of Pakistani cultural context and its implications in the Pakistani society.
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